Tackling Marine Pollution Through Policy
During my first year of college, my environmental geology teacher asked us to participate in an exercise that tracked the garbage we created over a week. Specifically, we were to keep all the plastic and cans we used and bring them in the following Monday. The results were a nightmare. Students lurched down the halls under the awkward weight of two to six full bags each; collectively, we almost couldn't fit in the classroom. Watching the shame and reckoning wash over each student's face as they looked around the room was profound. What struck me even deeper was realizing that 2-5% of all this trash would end up in the ocean someday—and that was just a fraction of the 11 million tonnes of plastic entering marine environments yearly.
Why is that a problem? Well, over 200 million tonnes of plastic waste circulate in the ocean, including the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, which can take thousands of years to break down. This waste harms over 1,400 marine species, has been found in human organs, increases fossil fuel use, and costs the global economy $2.5 trillion annually through ecosystem damage, tourism losses, and fisheries impacts. Marine pollution originates from various sources, including land-based runoff, ocean-based/port and harbor activities, as well as mining, dredging, and coastal development. We also see an influx from tourism, airborne contaminants, and plastic and garbage debris. These sources release pollutants that are radioactive, hazardous, toxic, carcinogenic, psychoactive, physically constraining, flammable, acidic, etc. This should start to sound scary, as many of us know these agents harm our health. They can also alter water quality and affect cellular plasticity, breathing, nutrition, energy expenditure, reproduction, and other vital biological functions in marine animals.
Photo Source: LamplightDigitalMedia 2023
The underlying issue is that some of humanity has developed an unhealthy mindset regarding the natural environment— one that has led to unfathomable amounts of pollution being released into the ocean and created a global threat that gravely undermines the survival of marine ecosystems. There is hope, however, as many have taken significant strides in tackling the marine pollution crisis, and multiple political frameworks were implemented throughout the late 20th century to address this multifaceted threat. Notably, those targeting marine pollution from land-based dumping—the London Convention, Clean Water Act (CWA), and Ocean Dumping Act (MPRSA)—and vessels— MARPOL and the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships (APPS). Individually, they delineate rigid boundaries on anything from pesticides and nutrients to oil and sewage in our waterways. Together, they show that when we find the courage to take on complex problems, we gain the power to reverse damages and make the ocean a cleaner place.
London Convention
In response to the growing threat of deliberate ocean dumping, nations assembled in 1972 to create the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, aka the London Convention. Administered by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the London Convention and 1996 protocol prohibit the discharge of any material into the ocean unless permission is explicitly acquired. Permits may be granted for dredged, inert inorganic geological, sewage sludge, fish waste, and bulky materials; however, oil, heavy metals, nonfood garbage, industrial, radioactive (1993), chemical, and carbon capture (2006) materials are more strictly monitored. Penalties for violating the London Convention fall under state-specific fines and detention declarations, as exemplified by severe cases such as the Probo Koala Incident (2006) and Philippines v. Sulpicio v. Del Monte (2008). At 87 parties total, member states must adopt and enforce domestic laws regulating waste disposal at sea and conduct environmental impact assessments for instances involving marine pollution.
CWA and MPRSA
Two major statutes regulate dumping in U.S. waters - the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, aka the Clean Water Act (CWA), and the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (MPRSA), aka the Ocean Dumping Act. These directives have been adapted to implement the same regulations as the London Convention. Focused on land-based contamination, the CWA regulates point sources of pollution through industrial effluent limitations and technological standards. Pollution originating from a single, identifiable location is considered a point source, such as a factory discharge pipe, power plant smokestack, or construction site drainage ditch. The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System enables the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) to issue permits and set standards for discharges in all navigable waters of the U.S., including lakes, wetlands, streams, and coastal areas. Centered around offshore contamination, the MPRSA mirrors the pollution standards outlined in the London Convention (no industrial, garbage, etc.) and regulates ocean dumping via permits administered by the EPA and USACE. However, it expands to embody marine research and conservation provisions, particularly in designating marine sanctuaries—of which the U.S. now has nearly 1,000, though only 3% are fully protected. Each violation of the CWA and the MPRSA can lead to criminal charges for individuals or corporations, with penalties ranging from around $55,000 to $3 million* in fines and up to 5-15 years in prison.
MARPOL
Shortly after the ocean dumping awakening, states convened again to target the threat of marine pollution from vessels and maritime activities. The Convention on the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, aka MARPOL, was adopted in 1973 to restrict operational and accidental discharges of harmful substances like oil, noxious liquids, packaged contaminants, sewage, garbage, and air emissions. Under the IMO and 1978 protocol, it prohibits packaged contaminants and nonfood garbage everywhere, allows treated sewage only within territorial seas (12 nm offshore), and limits all other materials beyond the territorial marker (up to 15 ppm oil, 0.5% sulfur, etc.), including in the high seas. Captains must employ classification societies to ensure vessel compliance, maintain oil and cargo log books, and are held primarily responsible for violations. Delegating implementation and penalization to its 164 member states, the legal throttle of MARPOL can be observed in the tightened enforcement for emission control areas and from cases such as the Prestige Oil Spill (2002) and U.S. v. Overseas Shipholding Group (2013).
APPS
Following the international protocol adoption, the U.S. passed the Act to Prevent the Pollution from Ships (APPS) in 1980 to implement MARPOL. Administered by the U.S. Coast Guard and EPA, APPS covers the same maritime pollutants (oil, emissions, etc.), except for sewage. Technically, the U.S. is not a party to MARPOL as it has yet to ratify the regulations dealing with sewage (Annex IV), under the reasoning that the CWA provides sufficient mechanisms to meet international standards; but support is evident nonetheless. Additionally, APPS incorporates whistleblower provisions (2013), which offer substantial financial incentives for crew members or individuals who report illegal pollution activities. Ships are prohibited from discharging pollutants within territorial seas, and permits may be issued further offshore; violating these terms can result in fines between about $60,000 to $1 million* and up to 6 years in prison.
These five legal frameworks have hindered global marine pollution considerably, but there is always room for improvement. The London Convention sets global waste standards and applies a precautionary approach to protect marine life. The CWA and MPRSA have safeguarded local ecosystems and reshaped political views on resource conservation. MARPOL revolutionized the shipping industry, creating safer marine habitats. APPS enhanced monitoring and offshore environmental care in U.S. waters. However, updated or new legislation is needed to cope with microplastic pollution, ballast water and invasive species management, cruise ship waste, nonpoint source pollution, carbon emissions, recycling infrastructure, noise pollution, real-time monitoring, and enforcement.
Fortunately, these shortcomings have gained the attention of key players in marine conservation. Events like the Ministerial Conference on Plastic Pollution (October 2024) and the final Global Plastics Treaty negotiations (November 2024) will hopefully address plastic pollution worldwide. Organizations like Oceana, Surfrider, and The Ocean Cleanup Project are driving innovative and necessary change. Meanwhile, documentaries such as A Plastic Ocean spark sensitivity and familiarity, and gatherings like the annual Global Ocean Cleanup Week raise public awareness. Bold initiatives led by Sea Shepherd and Extinction Rebellion target the cruise industry and illegal dumping, but we are still fighting- and we need your help.
These statutes create a solid foundation for managing land and ocean-based pollution. While evolving, they set a societal intention to protect the marine environment and reflect passionate, synergistic values. For many of us, the garbage exercise was the turning point in committing to honor nature with every step moving forward—for our health, marine beings, and future generations. With pollution somewhat under control, the next step is to ensure the survival of the habitats that sustain marine life.
*Fines adjusted for inflation as per the Federal Civil Penalties Inflation Adjustment Act (1990)
For more background information on marine pollution, check out other MSE posts: Paper, Plastic, or Reusable Bags?, Microplastics: the Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, and Face Masks: Helping the Public, Harming the Oceans.
How can you make a difference?
Reduce, Reuse: carry reusable bags, bottles, and utensils; avoid products with heavy packaging.
Participate in Cleanups: join or organize local beach or river cleanups—even inland, picking up trash prevents it from reaching the ocean.
Support Trusted Organizations: Oceana, Surfrider Foundation, Project AWARE, NOAA’s # Debrisfree campaign, Sea Shepherd’s Operation CLEAN WAVES.
Be a Conscious Consumer: support businesses that prioritize sustainability and reduce ocean waste.
Educate and Inspire Others: share documentaries or articles on marine pollution. (save the infographic below for a quick reference guide)
Advocate for Change: ask representatives to support stronger marine protection laws.
Report Ocean Dumping: notify proper authorities for action. Contacts for member states are available here:
USCG National Response Center - Tel: +1(800)424-8802, +1(202)267-2180 / Email: HQS-DG-lst-NRCINFO@uscg.mil
Complete a Dumping Incident Information Form and Supplementary Information Form (pdf)
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